The Ruins

C >> C. F. [Constantin Francois de] Volney >> The Ruins


The Mussulmen, who suppose women to have no souls, are
shocked at the idea of confession; and say; How can an
honest man think of listening to the recital of the actions
or the secret thoughts of a woman? May we not also ask, on
the other hand, how can an honest woman consent to reveal
them?

Thus by mutual reproaches the doctors of the different sects began to
reveal all the crimes of their ministry--all the vices of their craft;
and it was found that among all nations the spirit of the priesthood,
their system of conduct, their actions their morals, were absolutely the
same:

That they had everywhere formed secret associations and corporations at
enmity with the rest of society:*

* That we may understand the general feelings of priests
respecting the rest of mankind, whom they always call by the
name of the people, let us hear one of the doctors of the
church. "The people," says Bishop Synnesius, in Calvit.
page 315, "are desirous of being deceived, we cannot act
otherwise respecting them. The case was similar with the
ancient priests of Egypt, and for this reason they shut
themselves up in their temples, and there composed their
mysteries, out of the reach of the eye of the people." And
forgetting what he has before just said, he adds: "for had
the people been in the secret they might have been offended
at the deception played upon them. In the mean time how is
it possible to conduct one's self otherwise with the people
so long as they are people? For my own part, to myself I
shall always be a philosopher, but in dealing with the mass
of mankind, I shall be a priest."

"A little jargon," says Geogory Nazianzen to St. Jerome
(Hieron. ad. Nep.) "is all that is necessary to impose on
the people. The less they comprehend, the more they admire.
Our forefathers and doctors of the church have often said,
not what they thought, but what circumstances and necessity
dictated to them."

"We endeavor," says Sanchoniaton, "to excite admiration by
means of the marvellous." (Proep. Evang. lib. 3.)

Such was the conduct of all the priests of antiquity, and is
still that of the Bramins and Lamas who are the exact
counterpart of the Egyptian priests. Such was the practice
of the Jesuits, who marched with hasty strides in the same
career. It is useless to point out the whole depravity of
such a doctrine. In general every association which has
mystery for its basis, or an oath of secrecy, is a league of
robbers against society, a league divided in its very bosom
into knaves and dupes, or in other words agents and
instruments. It is thus we ought to judge of those modern
clubs, which, under the name of Illuminatists, Martinists,
Cagliostronists, and Mesmerites, infest Europe. These
societies are the follies and deceptions of the ancient
Cabalists, Magicians, Orphies, etc., "who," says Plutarch,
"led into errors of considerable magnitude, not only
individuals, but kings and nations."

That they had everywhere attributed to themselves prerogatives and
immunities, by means of which they lived exempt from the burdens of
other classes:

That they everywhere avoided the toils of the laborer, the dangers of
the soldier, and the disappointments of the merchant:

That they lived everywhere in celibacy, to shun even the cares of a
family:

That, under the cloak of poverty, they found everywhere the secret of
procuring wealth and all sorts of enjoyments:

That under the name of mendicity they raised taxes to a greater amount
than princes:

That in the form of gifts and offerings they had established fixed and
certain revenues exempt from charges:

That under pretence of retirement and devotion they lived in idleness
and licentiousness:

That they had made a virtue of alms-giving, to live quietly on the
labors of others:

That they had invented the ceremonies of worship, as a means of
attracting the reverence of the people, while they were playing the
parts of gods, of whom they styled themselves the interpreters and
mediators, to assume all their powers; that, with this design, they had
(according to the degree of ignorance or information of their people)
assumed by turns the character of astrologers, drawers of horoscopes,
fortune-tellers, magicians,* necromancers, quacks, physicians,
courtiers, confessors of princes, always aiming at the great object to
govern for their own advantage:

* What is a magician, in the sense in which people
understand the word? A man who by words and gestures
pretends to act on supernatural beings, and compel them to
descend at his call and obey his orders. Such was the
conduct of the ancient priests, and such is still that of
all priests in idolatrous nations; for which reason we have
given them the denomination of Magicians.

And when a Christian priest pretends to make God descend
from heaven, to fix him to a morsel of leaven, and render,
by means of this talisman, souls pure and in a state of
grace, what is this but a trick of magic? And where is the
difference between a Chaman of Tartary who invokes the
Genii, or an Indian Bramin, who makes Vichenou descend in a
vessel of water to drive away evil spirits? Yes, the
identity of the spirit of priests in every age and country
is fully established! Every where it is the assumption of
an exclusive privilege, the pretended faculty of moving at
will the powers of nature; and this assumption is so direct
a violation of the right of equality, that whenever the
people shall regain their importance, they will forever
abolish this sacrilegious kind of nobility, which has been
the type and parent stock of the other species of nobility.

That sometimes they had exalted the power of kings and consecrated their
persons, to monopolize their favors, or participate their sway:

That sometimes they had preached up the murder of tyrants (reserving it
to themselves to define tyranny), to avenge themselves of their contempt
or their disobedience:

And that they always stigmatised with impiety whatever crossed their
interests; that they hindered all public instruction, to exercise the
monopoly of science; that finally, at all times and in all places, they
had found the secret of living in peace in the midst of the anarchy they
created, in safety under the despotism that they favored, in idleness
amidst the industry they preached, and in abundance while surrounded
with scarcity; and all this by carrying on the singular trade of selling
words and gestures to credulous people, who purchase them as commodities
of the greatest value.*

* A curious work would be the comparative history of the
agnuses of the pope and the pastils of the grand Lama. It
would be worth while to extend this idea to religions
ceremonies in general, and to confront column by column, the
analogous or contrasting points of faith and superstitious
practices in all nations. There is one more species of
superstition which it would be equally salutary to cure,
blind veneration for the great; and for this purpose it
would be alone sufficient to write a minute detail of the
private life of kings and princes. No work could be so
philosophical as this; and accordingly we have seen what a
general outcry was excited among kings and the panders of
kings, when the Anecdotes of the Court of Berlin first
appeared. What would be the alarm were the public put in
possession of the sequel of this work? Were the people
fairly acquainted with all the absurdities of this species
of idol, they would no longer be exposed to covet their
specious pleasures of which the plausible and hollow
appearance disturbs their peace, and hinders them from
enjoying the much more solid happiness of their own
condition.

Then the different nations, in a transport of fury, were going to
tear in pieces the men who had thus abused them; but the legislator,
arresting this movement of violence, addressed the chiefs and doctors:

"What!" said he, "instructors of nations, is it thus that you have
deceived them?"

And the terrified priests replied.

"O legislator! we are men. The people are so superstitious! they have
themselves encouraged these errors."*

* Consider in this view the Brabanters.

And the kings said:

"O legislator! the people are so servile and so ignorant! they
prostrated themselves before the yoke, which we scarcely dared to show
them."*

* The inhabitants of Vienna, for example, who harnessed
themselves like cattle and drew the chariot of Leopold.

Then the legislator, turning to the people--"People!" said he, "remember
what you have just heard; they are two indelible truths. Yes, you
yourselves cause the evils of which you complain; yourselves encourage
the tyrants, by a base adulation of their power, by an imprudent
admiration of their false beneficence, by servility in obedience,
by licentiousness in liberty, and by a credulous reception of every
imposition. On whom shall you wreak vengeance for the faults committed
by your own ignorance and cupidity?"

And the people, struck with confusion, remained in mournful silence.



CHAPTER XXIV.

SOLUTION OF THE PROBLEM OF CONTRADICTIONS.


The legislator then resumed his discourse: "O nations!" said he, "we
have heard the discussion of your opinions. The different sentiments
which divide you have given rise to many reflections, and furnished
several questions which we shall propose to you to solve.

"First, considering the diversity and opposition of the creeds to which
you are attached, we ask on what motives you found your persuasion? Is
it from a deliberate choice that you follow the standard of one prophet
rather than another? Before adopting this doctrine, rather than that,
did you first compare? did you carefully examine them? Or have you
received them only from the chance of birth, from the empire of
education and habit? Are you not born Christians on the borders of the
Tiber, Mussulmans on those of the Euphrates, Idolaters on the Indus,
just as you are born fair in cold climates, and sable under the
scorching sun of Africa? And if your opinions are the effect of your
fortuitous position on the earth, of consanguinity, of imitation, how is
it that such a hazard should be a ground of conviction, an argument of
truth?

"Secondly, when we reflect on the mutual proscriptions and arbitrary
intolerance of your pretensions, we are frightened at the consequences
that flow from your own principles. Nations! who reciprocally devote
each other to the bolts of heavenly wrath, suppose that the universal
Being, whom you revere, should this moment descend from heaven on this
multitude; and, clothed with all his power, should sit on this throne
to judge you; suppose that he should say to you: Mortals! it is your own
justice that I am going to exercise upon you. Yes, of all the religious
systems that divide you, one alone shall this day be preferred; all the
others, all this multitude of standards, of nations, of prophets, shall
be condemned to eternal destruction. This is not enough: among the
particular sects of the chosen system, one only can be favored; all
the others must be condemned: neither is this enough;--from this little
remnant of a group I must exclude all those who have not fulfilled the
conditions enjoined by its precepts. O men! to what a small number of
elect have you limited your race! to what a penury of beneficence do you
reduce the immensity of my goodness! to what a solitude of beholders do
you condemn my greatness and my glory!

"But," said the legislator rising, "no matter you have willed it so.
Nations! here is an urn in which all your names are placed: one only is
a prize: approach, and draw this tremendous lottery!" And the nations,
seized with terror cried: "No, no; we are all brothers, all equal; we
cannot condemn each other."

"Then," said the legislator, resuming his seat: "O men! who dispute
on so many subjects, lend an attentive ear to one problem which you
exhibit, and which you ought to decide yourselves."

And the people, giving great attention, he lifted an arm towards heaven,
and, pointing to the sun, said:

"Nations, does that sun, which enlightens you, appear square or
triangular?"

"No," answered they with one voice, "it is round."

Then, taking the golden balance that was on the altar:

"This gold," said the legislator, "that you handle every day, is it
heavier than the same volume of copper?"

"Yes," answered all the people, "gold is heavier than Copper."

Then, taking the sword:

"Is this iron," said the legislator, "softer than lead?"

"No," said the people.

"Is sugar sweet, and gall bitter?"

"Yes."

"Do you love pleasure and hate pain?"

"Yes."

"Thus, then, you are agreed in these points, and many others of the same
nature.

"Now, tell us, is there a cavern in the centre of the earth, or
inhabitants in the moon?"

This question caused a universal murmur. Every one answered
differently--some yes, others no; one said it was probable, another said
it was an idle and ridiculous question; some, that it was worth knowing.
And the discord was universal.

After some time the legislator, having obtained silence, said:

"Explain to us, O Nations! this problem: we have put to you several
questions which you have answered with one voice, without distinction
of race or of sect: white men, black men, followers of Mahomet and of
Moses, worshippers of Boudha and of Jesus, all have returned the same
answer. We then proposed another question, and you have all disagreed!
Why this unanimity in one case, and this discordance in the other?"

And the group of simple men and savages answered and said: "The reason
of this is plain. In the first case we see and feel the objects, and we
speak from sensation; in the second, they are beyond the reach of our
senses--we speak of them only from conjecture."

"You have resolved the problem," said the legislator; "and your own
consent has established this first truth:

"That whenever objects can be examined and judged of by your senses,
you are agreed in opinion; and that you only differ when the objects are
absent and beyond your reach.

"From this first truth flows another equally clear and worthy of notice.
Since you agree on things which you know with certainty, it follows that
you disagree only on those which you know not with certainty, and about
which you are not sure; that is to say, you dispute, you quarrel, you
fight, for that which is uncertain, that of which you doubt. O men! is
this wisdom?

"Is it not, then, demonstrated that truth is not the object of your
contests? that it is not her cause which you defend, but that of your
affections, and your prejudices? that it is not the object, as it really
is in itself, that you would verify, but the object as you would have
it; that is to say, it is not the evidence of the thing that you would
enforce, but your own personal opinion, your particular manner of seeing
and judging? It is a power that you wish to exercise, an interest that
you wish to satisfy, a prerogative that you arrogate to yourself; it is
a contest of vanity. Now, as each of you, on comparing himself to every
other, finds himself his equal and his fellow, he resists by a feeling
of the same right. And your disputes, your combats, your intolerance,
are the effect of this right which you deny each other, and of the
intimate conviction of your equality.

"Now, the only means of establishing harmony is to return to nature,
and to take for a guide and regulator the order of things which she has
founded; and then your accord will prove this other truth:

"That real beings have in themselves an identical, constant and uniform
mode of existence; and that there is in your organs a like mode of being
affected by them.

"But at the same time, by reason of the mobility of these organs as
subject to your will, you may conceive different affections, and find
yourselves in different relations with the same objects; so that you are
to them like a mirror, capable of reflecting them truly as they are, or
of distorting and disfiguring them.

"Hence it follows, that whenever you perceive objects as they are,
you agree among yourselves, and with the objects; and this similitude
between your sensations and their manner of existence, is what
constitutes their truth with respect to you; and, on the contrary,
whenever you differ in opinion, your disagreement is a proof that you do
not represent them such as they are,--that you change them.

"Hence, also, it follows, that the causes of your disagreement exist
not in the objects themselves, but in your minds, in your manner of
perceiving or judging.

"To establish, therefore, a uniformity of opinion, it is necessary first
to establish the certainty, completely verified, that the portraits
which the mind forms are perfectly like the originals; that it reflects
the objects correctly as they exist. Now, this result cannot be obtained
but in those cases where the objects can be brought to the test, and
submitted to the examination of the senses. Everything which cannot
be brought to this trial is, for that reason alone, impossible to be
determined; there exists no rule, no term of comparison, no means of
certainty, respecting it.

"From this we conclude, that, to live in harmony and peace, we must
agree never to decide on such subjects, and to attach to them no
importance; in a word, we must trace a line of distinction between those
that are capable of verification, and those that are not; and separate
by an inviolable barrier the world of fantastical beings from the world
of realities; that is to say, all civil effect must be taken away from
theological and religious opinions.

"This, O ye people of the earth! is the object proposed by a great
nation freed from her fetters and her prejudices; this is the work
which, under her eye and by her orders, we had undertaken, when your
kings and your priests came to interrupt it. O kings and priests! you
may suspend, yet for a while, the solemn publication of the laws of
nature; but it is no longer in your power to annihilate or to subvert
them."


A general shout then arose from every part of the assembly; and the
nations universally, and with one voice, testified their assent to the
proposals of the delegates: "Resume," said they, "your holy and sublime
labors, and bring them to perfection. Investigate the laws which nature,
for our guidance, has implanted in our breasts, and collect from them
an authentic and immutable code; nor let this code be any longer for one
family only, but for us all without exception. Be the legislators of the
whole human race, as you are the interpreters of nature herself. Show
us the line of partition between the world of chimeras and that of
realities; and teach us, after so many religions of error and delusion,
the religion of evidence and truth!"


Then the delegates, having resumed their enquiries into the physical and
constituent attributes of man, and examined the motives and affections
which govern him in his individual and social state, unfolded in these
words the laws on which nature herself has founded his happiness.



THE LAW OF NATURE.


CHAPTER 1.

OF THE LAW OF NATURE.


Q. What is the law of nature?

A. It is the constant and regular order of events, by which God governs
the universe; an order which his wisdom presents to the senses and
reason of men, as an equal and common rule for their actions, to guide
them, without distinction of country or sect, towards perfection and
happiness.

Q. Give a clear definition of the word law.

A. The word law, taken literary, signifies lecture,* because originally,
ordinances and regulations were the lectures, preferably to all others,
made to the people, in order that they might observe them, and not incur
the penalties attached to their infraction: whence follows the original
custom explaining the true idea.

The definition of law is, "An order or prohibition to act with the
express clause of a penalty attached to the infraction, or of a
recompense attached to the observance of that order."

* From the Latin word lex, lectio. Alcoran likewise
signifies lecture and is only a literal translation of the
word law.

Q. Do such orders exist in nature?

A. Yes.

Q. What does the word nature signify?

A. The word nature bears three different significations.

1. It signifies the universe, the material world: in this first sense
we say the beauties of nature, the riches of nature, that is to say, the
objects in the heavens and on the earth exposed to our sight;

2. It signifies the power that animates, that moves the universe,
considering it as a distinct being, such as the soul is to the body;
in this second sense we say, "The intentions of nature, the
incomprehensible secrets of nature."

3. It signifies the partial operations of that power on each being, or
on each class of beings; and in this third sense we say, "The nature of
man is an enigma; every being acts according to its nature."

Wherefore, as the actions of each being, or of each species of beings,
are subjected to constant and general rules, which cannot be infringed
without interrupting and troubling the general or particular order,
those rules of action and of motion are called natural laws, or laws of
nature.

Q. Give me examples of those laws.

A. It is a law of nature, that the sun illuminates successively the
surface of the terrestrial globe;--that its presence causes both light
and heat;--that heat acting upon water, produces vapors;--that those
vapors rising in clouds into the regions of the air, dissolve into rain
or snow, and renew incessantly the waters of fountains and rivers.

It is a law of nature, that water flows downwards; that it endeavors
to find its level; that it is heavier than air; that all bodies tend
towards the earth; that flame ascends towards the heavens;--that it
disorganizes vegetables and animals; that air is essential to the life
of certain animals; that, in certain circumstances, water suffocates and
kills them; that certain juices of plants, certain minerals attack
their organs, and destroy their life, and so on in a multitude of other
instances.

Wherefore, as all those and similar facts are immutable, constant, and
regular, so many real orders result from them for man to conform himself
to, with the express clause of punishment attending the infraction of
them, or of welfare attending their observance. So that if man pretends
to see clear in darkness, if he goes in contradiction to the course of
the seasons, or the action of the elements; if he pretends to remain
under water without being drowned, to touch fire without burning
himself, to deprive himself of air without being suffocated, to swallow
poison without destroying himself, he receives from each of those
infractions of the laws of nature a corporeal punishment proportionate
to his fault; but if on the contrary, he observes and practises each of
those laws according to the regular and exact relations they have to him
he preserves his existence, and renders it as happy as it can be: and
as the only and common end of all those laws, considered relatively to
mankind, is to preserve, and render them happy, it has been agreed
upon to reduce the idea to one simple expression, and to call them
collectively the law of nature.



CHAPTER II.

CHARACTERS OF THE LAW OF NATURE.


Q. What are the characters of the law of nature?

A. There can be assigned ten principal ones.

Q. Which is the first?

A. To be inherent to the existence of things, and, consequently,
primitive and anterior to every other law: so that all those which
man has received, are only imitations of it, and their perfection is
ascertained by the resemblance they bear to this primordial model.

Q. Which is the second?

A. To be derived immediately from God, and presented by him to each man,
whereas all other laws are presented to us by men, who may be either
deceived or deceivers.

Q. Which is the third?

A. To be common to all times, and to all countries, that is to say, one
and universal.

Q. Is no other law universal?

A. No: for no other is agreeable or applicable to all the people of the
earth; they are all local and accidental, originating from circumstances
of places and of persons; so that if such a man had not existed, or such
an event happened, such a law would never have been enacted.

Q. Which is the fourth character?

A. To be uniform and invariable.

Q. Is no other law uniform and invariable?

A. No: for what is good and virtue according to one, is evil and vice
according to another; and what one and the same law approves of at one
time, it often condemns at another.

Q. Which is the fifth character?